All dog training methods stem from
operant conditioning whether the methods use positive or negative
reinforcements as their primary motivators. This emphasizes the importance of
operant conditioning. Without such understanding we will not be able to educate
our dogs effectively.
To review, in operant
conditioning, the subject changes its behavior in response to the effects the
new behavior has on its environment. In 1938, B.F. Skinner developed the basic
concept of operant conditioning. He claimed this type of learning was not the
result of stimulus-response learning (i.e. classical/Pavlovian conditioning)
but rather of the subject making a choice and the resultant reinforcer of that
choice. Skinner chose the term “operant” conditioning to denote that the
subject is the operator as it were of its choices and not just a passive
participant.
Skinner learned there are two
kinds of reinforcement that
strengthen the subject’s response thus increasing the probability that the
behavior would reoccur. One of the reinforcements (positive) ADDS something
pleasurable to the subject (eg. food treat). The other reinforcer (negative)
accomplishes its effect by REMOVING something unpleasant or adverse to the
subject’s environment (eg. tight choke collar or ear pinch).
He also learned there are two punishments which weaken the
probability that the behavior will reoccur. The first, positive punishment,
adds a direct or adverse effect to the subject (eg. strong jerk of choke
collar). The other punishment (negative punishment) has also been termed
extinction. In this, an undesired behavior has no effect upon the subject’s
environment and will then fade as the subject receives no reinforcement. (Eg. A dog who begs for a treat will eventually give up if
he is totally ignored every time. Any attention or reaction from the person
with the food whether it be positive or negative attention will only increase
the begging behavior.)
Skinner found that the two
punishment methods are not as effective as the reinforcement methods. In
punishment, the focus is not on the actual action of the subject but what the
behavior should be. It also can elicit some undesired emotions (eg. resentment,
anger, apathy), psychological problems, and not be conducive to continued
relationships.
Specifically, in dog training
these four effects of operant conditioning are generally known as Positive
Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction. While the
current trend is teaching dogs using positive reinforcement, there are times, I
believe, when each of the other methods must be used. The danger in following
one method exclusively is that the trainer becomes so blinded by “their method”
that the individual dog and its unique needs are forgotten. What may work well
with one dog (or a particular breed) may be totally different from what is
needed with a different dog or breed.
As mentioned previously, there is
a plethora of information available on the various methods and cures for dog
training and dog related problems. It is impossible to explore the scope of
each method thoroughly in an article so I encourage readers to search out the
information that is available. Every person who has trained many dogs has
favorite methods, teachers, and ideas that they use. I urge each trainer to
search for new ideas constantly. While you may not agree with all the methods a
particular person uses, perhaps something they say or do might be useful to
try.
At this point, I’ll briefly cover
the four methods of Operant Conditioning.
Positive Reinforcement
This type of teaching became more mainstream in dog training in the late 1970’s and early
1980’s. Now it is the most common “method” being taught. To review, in positive
reinforcement training, the subject (dog) receives a pleasurable effect (treat,
pat, play with a toy...) after changing its behavior
to what the trainer wants. The dog has the choice to modify its behavior (and
thus get a treat etc.) or not to modify its behavior (and not get the treat
etc.). Dogs are not stupid beings. Like us, they enjoy pleasure and pleasurable
events so will “work” for these rewards. In true positive reinforcement work,
there is no pain only gain (of pleasure) in a training
session. Common and becoming mainstream methods are lure training (eg. luring
the puppy into a down position by having it follow a food treat) and clicker
training. The biggest advantage of positive reinforcement is the positive
attitude developed towards learning in both dog and trainer.
Negative Reinforcement
This is the “old style” of dog
training that is seen with heavy usages of choke collars, jerking leashes, and
ear-pinching. To review, in negative reinforcement, the subject (dog) modifies
its behavior to stop or avoid an unpleasant adverse condition.
The dog has a choice to change its behavior (e.g. opens its mouth for the
dumbbell and thus receives relief from the uncomfortable ear-pinch) or not
(keep its mouth shut thus enduring pain). Yes, there can be very strong
behavior patterns set in. An example is the quick moving out in heeling
positions to avoid the “ pop of the lead (and sudden
tightening of choke collar) after the command “heel” is given. It must be
emphasized that this method is fear-based.
With intelligent independent dogs, this type of training builds strong negative
feelings of resentment, anger, and eventual apathy creating the resulting
effect of a dog who is lackluster in its work - if it
works at all.
Punishment
To review, a behavior is weakened
by the consequence of experiencing a negative condition. It should be
emphasized that punishment’s purpose is to change the subject’s behavior to
what it should be and does not have direct
correlation to the subject’s actual actions. An example is punishing a dog
(verbally, physically) for chewing a forbidden object after the dog has long
since stopped chewing it. In the vast majority of punishment scenarios, the
only individual receiving reinforcement is the one doing the punishment
(release of anger/frustration). This can create a strong undesired behavior
pattern in the handler/punisher while having the effect of increasing fear and
lack of trust (to the handler) in the subject (dog.) One-trial learning comes
under the umbrella of punishment in its methods. In this, the subject receives
such a strong negative effect to its behavior that it learns (in one trial) not
to repeat that particular behavior. An example is a curious puppy sniffing a
lit candle. The flame hurts the puppy’s nose (negative condition) and the puppy
is unlikely to sniff a burning candle again. Thus the behavior is weakened.
Extinction
To review this term, the behavior
is weakened by the subject not experiencing a positive result nor stopping a
negative result by its behavior. With more attempts (repetitions) of the same
behavior and achieving the same lack of results, the behavior will fade away.
This can be useful in our dog’s education. An example is crate-training a
puppy. If you know the puppy is not physically stressed (doesn’t need to
eliminate, has been fed and watered, isn’t too hot or cold) and is just being
noisy and complaining, ignoring the noisy pup until it is quiet will (eventually)
extinguish the tantrum-like behavior. The ignored noisy behavior is
extinguished as it did not get rewarded by the owner’s positive or negative
attention/ reinforcement. When the pup is finally quiet for a
while, going to the pup and possibly releasing it from the crate rewards the
pup for its quiet (positive) behavior. The pup learns that temper
tantrums have no effect while being quiet has a positive effect. The temper
tantrums do fade.
It is important to understand the
difference between reinforcement and reward. Reinforcement (positive or
negative) can be termed as anything that when used in conjunction with a
behavior can increase the probability of that behavior reoccurring. It occurs
during or immediately after the conclusion of the desired behavior. (In this
way it gives the subject/dog immediate information about its behavior.) Reward
or punishment both occur after the act is completed. There is little or no
direct correlation between the behavior performed and the reward/punishment as
the emphasis is on the behavior desired.
Next article, I shall focus on the
Positive Reinforcement method of Operant Conditioning.
Copyright © 2002 Ruth
Kellogg. All rights reserved. |